The TIOBE Index is a monthly indicator of programming-language popularity based on factors including skilled engineers, courses, and third-party vendors. The October 2026 rankings show a largely stable top 10, with R overtaking SQL and Julia returning to the top 20 for the first time in three years. [SQL has risen to #9 from #10 in October of 2025 — back when R ranked only #13.]

Python remains No. 1, followed by C, C++, Java, C#, and JavaScript, while Rust holds its No. 10 position. [A year ago Rust ranked only #16.] Outside the top 10, Julia climbs from No. 21 to No. 18, and TIOBE introduces Mandarin Chinese search terms into its methodology to broaden the index’s geographic representation.

Python offers an accessible, high-level approach to numerical computing, but performance can become a bottleneck. C++, on the other hand, delivers excellent performance but comes with a steeper learning curve and a lower level of abstraction. Julia aims to bridge this gap by combining the best of both worlds…

Apart from Julia, two other languages are knocking on the door of the TIOBE top 20: Dart and OCaml. Dart jumps from #41 to #27 this month. Thanks to its popular UI toolkit Flutter, Dart has been hovering around the edge of the top 20 for quite some time. OCaml, on the other hand, might come as a surprise. It jumps from #38 to #26 this month, driven in part by its growing use in real-time trading systems and parsing technology.

The collection includes historical SDKs, developer conference presentations, technical documentation, programming examples, limited source code, and development utilities. (ROM images, commercial applications, and simulator binaries have deliberately been excluded....) Making a broader collection of development resources available to the retrocomputing community, the archive is available at GitHub.com/ardiri/dev-palmos and is intended for historical preservation, education, and research, particularly as enthusiasts continue working to maintain, emulate, and revive the platform… Ardiri has also written an auto-biography and has started explored the engineering principles behind these systems in his books.

Named ‘Virii,’ the virus intercepted Palm OS system calls to progressively infect legitimate applications while preserving their original functionality. Infected applications could then spread between handheld devices through infrared beaming, potentially allowing an infection to propagate among hundreds of developers exchanging software at the conference. The virus also included a date-triggered payload designed to interfere with system time reporting between October 23 and 27, 2001, potentially causing erratic clocks, unreliable alarms, and missed appointments.

The restriction is not new: the relevant checks were introduced in the device firmware around 2024. However, these hardware handcuffs have only recently received wider attention. Though a user can desolder the original memory and install electrically compatible RAM, the nonfree firmware may refuse to recognize the additional memory, or simply decide not to boot the computer at all. Even replacement RAM of the same capacity can be rejected.

This is worse than Raspberry Pi’s longstanding dependence on nonfree firmware in an important way. It is not only nonfree software, but it is Digital Restrictions Management (DRM), used in this case to prevent the owner of the computer from making a modification that the hardware is otherwise capable of supporting. That distinction matters. Soldered RAM is difficult for most people to replace since it is a physical characteristic of the hardware. In the case of Raspberry Pi boards, users have demonstrated that the hardware itself can be modified successfully....

Raspberry Pi justifies the use of DRM on the basis of being able to identify altered computers. There may be legitimate reasons for wanting to identify such altered computers. Unscrupulous sellers have reportedly replaced memory on lower-capacity boards and resold them as more expensive models, sometimes using unreliable or defective components. But preventing fraud and maintaining quality does not require taking control away from users. A Raspberry Pi could record its original factory configuration in a cryptographically verifiable form. Raspberry Pi could use free software that warns the user when the installed RAM differs from original factory configuration. Raspberry Pi could provide tools allowing buyers to verify what hardware originally shipped with a board. None of those measures requires a software-enforced limit on what an owner may do with the computer…

If compatible hardware can be installed successfully, the manufacturer should not create restrictions to prevent the owner from using it. Restrictions on hardware upgrades are deeply troubling from an organization like Raspberry Pi that has stated their commitment to longevity as a guiding principle. Free software is ultimately about who controls the computer. The user should control it, not the manufacturer that sold it....

The people who own these computers must also have the freedom to modify, repair, and upgrade them, without restrictions imposed by nonfree software limiting their potential.

The bootloader is stored in the SPI flash chip, which can be reflashed using the built-in mask ROM over USB and rpiboot, and you are not prevented from flashing older versions of the bootloader, so far… If you have the skills to upgrade your RAM, you most certainly have the skills to downgrade the Raspberry Pi bootloader…

My advice: don’t lament Raspberry Pi RAM upgrades, especially given they’re only slightly harder to perform now. Very few hackers ever performed them, the main audience for them turned out to be dodgy hardware resellers online… Think of the users that will no longer be fooled by a shady seller on Amazon, especially now that the perverse incentives for board mods and reusing harvested RAM chips are at their highest.

Mark Stephens, better known under the pen name Robert X. Cringely, died last week at 73. Stephens chronicled the tech industry of the late 1980s and early 1990s — the age of Bill Gates’ rise, Steve Jobs’ repose, the dawn of the world wide web — and produced the famed documetary Triumph of the Nerds, based on his own bestselling Accidental Empires: How the Boys of Silicon Valley Make Their Millions, Battle Foreign Competition, and Still Can’t Get a Date.

Though not the first InfoWorld columnist to write under the Cringely name, he was responsible for its persona and fought successfully to keep it after he left the magazine in 1995.

I first met him in the 1990s, while he was still working at InfoWorld, and we became friends immediately. He helped me get a job or two, and he was always filled with crazy (meaning really good) ideas.

I’ll miss him and his creativity greatly.

“How does a 67-year-old hack with three minor children recover from going blind, losing his home and business in a horrible fire (like 2,000 others, we are still fighting with insurance companies), while appeasing an angry crowd of Kickstarter supporters armed with pitchforks and shovels?”

That crowd still wants long-time tech pundit Robert X. Cringely to deliver on his Kickstarter-funded project to create custom Minecraft servers. So in a new blog post this week, Cringely writes that “I went looking for venture money to recapitalize MineServer and I simultaneously started a satellite launch company to fund my eventual retirement. I am not making this up…”

He’s now found a Beverly Hills patron who wants to be a co-investor in the Minecraft servers, but “I will have to earn the matching money on my own, which is what I have been trying to do with my other startup, Eldorado Space.”

• July, 1999: Cringely’s take on “Pirates of Silicon Valley”
• April, 2009: Three Mile Island Memories
• June, 2011: IBM Did Not Invent the Personal Computer
• March, 2019: Cringely’s Final Predictions: Apple Becomes a Financial Service and Hedge Fund
• June, 2019: Cringely Predicts The End Of Broadcast TV Within A Decade
• April, 2020: Not Just ‘The Death of IT’. Cringely Also Predicts Layoffs For Many IT Contractors
• January, 2021: Robert Cringley Predicted ‘The Death of IT’ in 2020. Was He Right?
• June, 2023: Cringely Predicts Moore’s Law Will Continue — Because of AI

But my favorite Cringely memory is Steve Jobs: The Lost Interview, the full 70-minute interview from 1995 that a 40-year-old Jobs gave to Cringely during filming for Triumph of the Nerds. (“And they actually sent someone to wake up the Pope....”) There’s various pirated copies on YouTube and an online transcript, but only 10 minutes made the broadcast — at the time Jobs was still at NeXT after his departure from Apple. But when Cringely rediscovered the videotape, the entirety of the interview was released to theaters in 2012 six months after Steve Jobs’ death.

Share your own memories of Robert Cringely in the comments…

The Department of Justice’s press release about the incident says that the National Security Division’s Counterintelligence and Export Control section, whose responsibility includes prosecuting spies, is assisting with the case… A Washington-based Middle East expert, who spoke on the condition of anonymity to avoid incurring wrath from Saudi Arabia, said he believed the Saudi government was almost certainly involved in some way. “No one does this, not even for patriotism, without getting paid,” said the person. And money would not be distributed without agreement by the Saudi royal court, he said. The Saudis lag behind their regional rival, the United Arab Emirates, in artificial intelligence development, he added.

In an Arabic podcast interview last month, Abdulrahman Alfozan, 35, a Saudi national, said he and other Saudi tech professionals in Silicon Valley had formed a group that advised Saudi organizations, including the kingdom’s social insurance agency…

“Silicon Valley is ground zero for espionage from a variety of countries around the world,” said Amy Zegart, a professor at Stanford University who specializes in national security and intelligence. She added that she was “troubled” by the OpenAI incident and expected more cases “because these companies are so important.”

Foreign nationals have long formed the backbone of the American tech industry, helping U.S. companies surpass their would-be international rivals… As recently as April, Katrina Mulligan, a senior member of OpenAI’s national security team, called for an “accelerated pathway to citizenship” for such workers, referring to foreign hires as a “national strategic asset” at an event on Capitol Hill. She estimated that a significant number of OpenAI’s employees were not U.S. citizens, including Chinese nationals. Just half of the 300 top AI researchers in the world, she said, were American.

Other industry leaders — as well as some lawmakers — have long accused top-tier tech companies with many foreign workers of disadvantaging Americans and being breeding grounds for Chinese espionage. Palmer Luckey, CEO of weapons maker Anduril, and venture capitalist Shaun Maguire of Sequoia Capital took to X on Wednesday to revisit arguments that the industry should focus on hiring U.S. citizens. “Silicon Valley has operated with maximum openness and maximum naivete toward foreign tradecraft,” Maguire wrote… At OpenAI on Wednesday, employees continued tense conversations about the political implications of the arrest for immigrant workers, two OpenAI employees said, speaking on the condition of anonymity to describe internal discussions… The arrest triggered a discussion on OpenAI’s internal Slack messaging platform among employees about whether the incident might increase pressure from the Trump administration on OpenAI to not hire foreign nationals, said one of the people.

In March, Emil Michael, the Pentagon’s chief technology officer, wrote in court papers that AI developer Anthropic’s reliance on staff with ties to China was among the concerns that fueled the Defense Department’s conflict with the AI company.

According to police, Marvin repeatedly blocked the robot’s path and ignored multiple commands from officers to move… Marvin said she was protesting the use of delivery robots because she believes they are replacing human workers.... “I have been protesting them whenever I saw them by standing in front of them and preventing them from going forward,” Marvin said…

Marvin said she has confronted delivery robots on multiple occasions… Ashley Baldwin of West Philadelphia said she witnessed one of those encounters. “I actually thought the robot hit her, so my original question was, ‘Are you OK? Did the robot hit you?’ And she said, ‘No, I have to stop this. They’re taking over the world,’" Baldwin said.

Asked whether she plans to continue protesting the robots, Marvin said she does.

Across Silicon Valley, experimental guaranteed income programs have quietly taken off. Google began funding six different initiatives in 2022 as part of a $50 million donation to nonprofits in the San Francisco Bay Area, saying basic income could be a novel way to prevent homelessness in one of the nation’s most expensive locations. Each program has hundreds of participants who receive around $1,000 a month, and academics study the results. State and federal tax laws limit the lengths of the programs and the payment amounts.

The studies have found that most basic income programs improve short-term employment and mental health while reducing food insecurity. But while data from these efforts has been closely tracked, less is known about the individual journeys of participants… The Times ultimately shadowed three people… All of the program participants, including the ones The Times followed, were previously homeless and transitioning off a housing stipend that paid for a portion of their rent, and many received the payments on top of other social assistance like food stamps.

The Times’s findings mirrored the academic studies. For all three recipients, the instant benefits of basic income were clear: They had breathing room for groceries, rent and other expenses. But the success of the payments in another area — giving people more free time and opportunity in the long term — was mixed. “It’s a lot to ask of someone to get their life together in 12 months, when a lot of these issues are structural or systemic,” said Jennifer Loving, who runs Destination: Home, a nonprofit that administers basic income programs in Silicon Valley. “And the world around them isn’t getting cheaper.”

In a win for digital rights, a federal judge has issued a preliminary injunction blocking Utah’s SB 73, the state’s draconian anti-VPN age verification law… Signed into law earlier this year, SB 73 attempted to regulate adult websites by requiring them to block VPN users or to identify the physical location of visitors using them or similar tools that mask their network traffic. It even went so far as to prohibit websites from offering instructions on how to use a VPN to bypass these checks. This made Utah, to EFF’s knowledge, the first state in the nation to target the use of VPNs to avoid legally mandated age-verification gates. The Utah federal court halted enforcement of the law’s VPN provisions last week, ruling that the law likely violates the U.S. Constitution’s prohibition on passing laws that significantly burden businesses and people outside Utah’s borders.

SB 73 burdens the rights of all internet users outside of Utah because it requires adult websites to either know every visiting user’s physical location, and then block those in Utah, or to verify every visitor’s age just in case they might be in Utah. The law’s “actual-location provision in practice requires an entity to perform age verification services for every user visiting its site from any location because the entity would violate the law if even one of those users happened to be obfuscating,” the court wrote. The court essentially ruled that Utah has less-burdensome ways to prevent Utah minors from accessing adult websites than requiring all users in the world to comply with SB 73.

Every site-blocking bill has the same rotten idea at their core: That enforcing copyrights requires building a censorship machine for websites into the architecture of the internet. This is, of course, a disaster for a free and open web. These proposals keep coming, but there is still no way to create a mechanism for blocking access to an entire website that does not invite both deliberate abuse and lots of collateral harm to free and lawful speech.

After promising not to comply with the Trump administration’s “Lake America” gimmick, the platform announced a new “Surveillance Layer” that displays the locations of automated license plate readers (ALPRs), including those from Flock Safety. Per MapQuest, its new tool will identify the locations of known outdoor surveillance cameras and plate readers from Motorola Solutions (Vigilant), Genetec, Axis Communications, Axon, Leonardo (ELSAG), Neology, Rekor, PlateSmart, Ubicquia, Verkada, and others.

While the company didn’t specify how it sources its data, it appears to be similar to the data amassed by DeFlock, which maintains a user-submitted map of ALPR camera locations. MapQuest may be sourcing the information from DeFlock and the OpenStreetMap project.

A $330 million expansion to its Rocket Park campus in Cape Canaveral, expected to be complete in the summer of 2027, will enable it to produce up to 150 upper stages of its New Glenn rocket annually, Blue Origin said in a blog post. “These investments are centered on one goal: building the capacity to support more missions, more reliably, and more efficiently,” Ian Richardson, Blue Origin’s senior vice president of operations, wrote in the post. “As we look ahead, this infrastructure is designed to support multiple flights per week by the end of the decade....”

Blue Origin said it’s building a new customer integration facility with the U.S. Space Force at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station that will enable it to “prepare multiple missions at once” when it’s up and running. Blue Origin has invested more than $3 billion in its infrastructure and facilities in Florida, which now spans more than 20 sites across the state’s Brevard and Orange counties, with more than 5,000 employees, [Ian Richardson, Blue Origin’s senior vice president of operations, wrote in the blog post].

The first part of this story comes via a message sent to the Linux mailing list. It announces one of the major changes decided during the Maintainers Summit on October 8, 2026, in Prague, Czechia, where submissions to the kernel no longer need to use the “Assisted-by” tag… meaning that people can submit AI-generated code without needing to declare it as such.

In some correspondence regarding concern about this new disclosure removal, the creator of Linux, Linus Torvalds, made his thoughts known… [Torvalds] compares an AI ban to getting rid of text editors, as doing so would prove that someone could write a good commit message without making any mistakes. He then rounds off his argument by asking, “Do you not see how UTTERLY STUPID those kinds of rules would be?” and stating that he simply expects the people working on the Linux kernel to “understand what they are doing.”

The development branch purports to fix an old issue with massive cache contention when many CPUs are reading the same file — a scenario potentially encountered when using shared libraries, databases, and web servers. Several developers had already made attempts over the years at fixing the issue, all with varied results, none quite ideal as an all-encompassing solution… He’s now posted his solution in a development branch, and claims that he’s seen a 23x performance improvement in a dedicated synthetic benchmark, though he notes that actual real-world impact will be far less significant, as “no real load” will witness those figures.

This led to celld. Building on the Cloudflare Workers programming model, celld lets developers build distributed applications from the start while making the system simple to operate. What excites me greatly is that the scaling is built into the programming model, rather than infrastructure each app has to assemble itself.... We want to make this programming model the default way to build servers, whether you run on Cloudflare’s network or your own infrastructure.

Joining also means choosing where to focus our effort… Deno will remain open source, and we welcome others who want to continue its development. Deno Deploy will continue operating for six months before shutting down. We will provide migration support for paying customers moving to Cloudflare Workers. [Deno’s JSR package registry for JavaScript and TypeScript] will continue operating, with its infrastructure moving to Cloudflare.

For CIOs evaluating serverless and edge platforms, portability now has a concrete answer… Released in August, [celld] is a single Rust binary that runs Workers and Durable Objects across many machines, with object storage as its only external dependency. Operators run multiple celld instances against one storage bucket, and the software handles placement, routing and persistence. Dahl and Belder will now lead an effort to merge celld into workerd and make self-hosting a supported way to run Workers applications. With this, customers can build an application on Cloudflare’s network and move it to a private data center without rewriting it.

Could the programming model make partitioning across machines part of the design from the start? The solution clicked into focus when I read about Cloudflare’s Durable Objects. It provided a very powerful abstraction: the distributed singleton with a SQLite database. Each Durable Object is like a small, individually addressable server with its own relational database. Its JavaScript execution is single-threaded (which is easy to reason about), it handles WebSockets, and its local SQLite database can be accessed synchronously. By building a chat application using one Durable Object per channel, you have sharded your data and WebSocket connections, and thus made your application scalable… What excites me is the leverage this model gives developers: compute, relational databases, queues, and real-time communication primitives designed for applications distributed across machines.

“Right now, every other server is really operating at the Linux VM layer. That is not what Cloudflare Workers are,” he said…

The ever-fickle Dahl first debuted Deno in 2018 as a rewrite of Node. The name ‘Deno’ is an anagram of Node, and it was Dahl’s attempt to fix everything he felt he got wrong with Node — built-in fetch, a permission model, native TypeScript support et al. Sequoia backed Dahl’s company for $21 million in 2022, and as of August, Deno amassed 400,000 monthly users. Nonetheless, Node’s gravity proved too heavy for Deno to achieve escape velocity.

“What we found over years of working on Deno is that you can’t really deviate from Node.js very much,” Dahl told The Register. “As we continued to try to get adoption for Deno, we found we had to essentially backpedal on some of the original promises and become more Node compatible over time, and that left us as a kind of an alternative Node.js implementation.” Going forward, Cloudflare will supply Deno with bug fixes and security patches for the next year, while Dahl looks for a new home for the MIT-licensed open source project.

The compromised information affects many more than the state’s current 5.7 million public-school students as the breach dates back to 2023 enrollments. Students who left California but did not confirm their transfer to another school also were affected, dating back to 2006.

The data breach involved [nonprofit] Educational Testing Service or ETS, which provides extensive services to California [including test participation and assessment data]… Affected former students, including those who are now adults, are eligible for 24 months of free identity-protection services and identity-restoration help if there is identity theft. Officials said that parents and guardians may want to consider requesting a free credit freeze for their children who are under 16 to help prevent unauthorized accounts from being opened in the names of their children.

“A stolen login credential should not become a months-long passport to millions of students’ personal records,” said Anton Dahbura, executive director of the Johns Hopkins University Information Security Institute. “If that is what happened here, the critical question is why authentication safeguards, access restrictions, and monitoring systems failed to detect and stop the unauthorized activity.”

He added: “Incidents like this expose a fundamental weakness in how we manage student data: School systems may outsource the storage and processing of sensitive information, but they cannot outsource the consequences of a breach. When millions of student records are concentrated with a single vendor, one security failure can become a statewide problem with consequences that follow children for years.”

“Isn’t it weird that I, like, did a TV show about kind of a business scam, and you got in trouble for like … a business scam?” comedian and filmmaker Nathan Fielder gently asks Elizabeth Holmes.

One month before the notorious Theranos CEO surrendered to begin her 11-year criminal fraud sentence in 2023, Holmes and her husband contacted A24 as a last-ditch effort to exonerate her in the public eye, suggesting they send a film crew to document her final days of freedom. Alongside director Lance Oppenheim, Fielder — a cringe-comedy mastermind whose work often walks the line between fact and fiction — embraced the impossible project of figuring out who the infamous Stanford dropout really is.

“I never actually made that connection,” says Holmes. “I think it’s a pretty different situation....”

We already know that Elizabeth Holmes is not innocent. What we still can’t figure out, though, is whether she really, truly believes she did nothing wrong. Even as she sat on trial — listening to testimonies from investors who lost hundreds of millions of dollars, whistleblowers who were silenced when they flagged that Theranos’ blood-testing devices didn’t work, and patients who acted on incorrect blood test results — Holmes never wavered.

As Fielder ingratiates himself with Holmes and [her husband] Evans, he gets them comfortable enough to ask the hard questions: about Theranos, about prison, and even about themselves. The resulting footage is often shocking. You will see Elizabeth Holmes, who still maintains she did nothing wrong, answer “no” when Fielder asks her if she’s ever lied in her life… [Y]ou will also see Holmes and Evans spend a great deal of time in this movie attempting to boot up Theranos 2.0. They even go so far as to drag out some of the original Theranos blood testing apparatus, which looks like a bunch of random parts from TigerDirect they hooked together, to show Fielder what their product can do. We do not see it doing anything on screen, but the couple assures that it we would if it was, like, hooked up properly.

These scenes are extremely funny, but funny isn’t what Fielder is looking for. He’s trying to figure out if this woman is a clueless naif, if she believes her own lies, or if she is playing the character of an innocent woman, and doing so with such effectiveness that, to paraphrase Fielder, she might be the most manipulative person in the world. The answer proves fabulously elusive, and so Fielder and Oppenheim go to extremes in their attempt to find it. They hold the camera on Holmes’ rubbery elfin face for what feels like hours at a time, to see if she’ll blink (figuratively or literally!). They interview Holmes’ visiting parents, with the father, former Enron exec Christian Holmes, casually telling Fielder that everything changed for his daughter “when she was raped.” To the furthest extreme, they bring in actress Amanda Seyfried — who played Holmes in the Hulu TV show "The Dropout" — to recreate any dialogues Fielder had with Holmes herself that couldn’t be recorded on camera. Seyfried is so convincing in mimicking Holmes that you, the audience, might forget which scenes were Seyfried talking to the camera and not Holmes herself. I know I did.

My personal hunch is that Fielder came away thinking Holmes is on the level, to the extent that someone who sometimes seems like an AI program’s idea of how a human should behave can be on the level. There are a few possibilities that might explain how Holmes comes off the way she does in the movie: (a) She is a simpleton. (b) She is a conniving sociopath who happens to be utterly brilliant at playing a simpleton. (c) Somewhere between those poles, she is the very emblem of a woman who throughout her life has put herself in the sway of controlling men, to the detriment of her intellect, willpower and emotional development… Is it possible that the more you learn about someone, the less you might know how to think about them?

Elizabeth Holmes, who was convicted of fraud for siphoning hundreds of millions of dollars from several high-profile investors, is scheduled to be transferred from a minimum-security federal prison to a halfway house next year, according to one of her victims… [America’s Department of Justice “is required by law to notify victims of crime of case developments through letters and emails,” the article points out.] She was sentenced in 2022 to 11 years and three months in prison. She and her business partner, Ramesh “Sunny” Balwani, were ordered to pay 12 victims a total of $452 million in restitution.

Holmes has been serving that sentence at a minimum-security prison in Bryan, Texas. The halfway house will provide her greater freedom… In March, a judge cut Holmes’ sentence from 135 months to 123 months. According to a court document, the judge agreed with Holmes that she did not personally cause “substantial financial hardship” to her victims.

Microplastics are a source of extreme concern for health: the presence of these tiny pieces of plastic has been linked to heart attacks, stroke, dementia and brain tumors. But what drives these associations is unclear. Now a study published in Nature offers a tantalizing clue: microplastics interact with water, generating highly reactive molecules. When microplastics come into contact with water, the water near their surface can become chemically active, generating highly reactive species that can modify nearby substances, including biologically important molecules.

As plastics wear down to microscopic sizes, their surface-to-volume ratio increases dramatically. For example, when a credit card is fragmented into particles some 10 microns in diameter, there is a more than 200-fold increase in its surface area, says Wei Min, a chemist at Columbia University and one of the senior authors of the study. As a result, any chemical activity is amplified. Min and his colleagues examined various microplastics — including polystyrene, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene and polyethylene terephthalate. Plastic surfaces are hydrophobic, meaning they repel water, Min says. Thus, water molecules cannot form the hydrogen bonds they maintain in liquid form. That changes molecular arrangements, and, in turn, the change influences the local electrical environment and chemical reactivity.

The presumed chemical inertness of bulk plastics overlooks the toxicity of their fragmented microscale forms. “For microplastics, this is especially important because fragmentation creates enormous amounts of new surface area,” Min says. In past research, microplastics have been shown to cause inflammation, oxidative stress and decreased mitochondrial activity. The new study provides a possible mechanism for this, showing that plastic-water interfaces can perturb proteins, cell membranes, and more. How this might contribute to damage in living tissues in humans is still unclear, Min says. “Ultimately, we hope to connect fundamental interfacial chemistry with quantitative measurements of biological effects, which would help us better understand potential health risks,” he adds.